Best Online Trading Apps for Nigerian Investors
Edited By
Ethan Wells
Kickoff
In Nigeria's growing financial market, picking the right online trading app isn't just a convenience—it's a necessity. With so many options out there, how can you tell which platform really meets your needs? From navigating fluctuating exchange rates to dealing with local regulations, Nigerian investors face unique challenges.
This guide aims to clear the fog by breaking down what features matter most when choosing an app. Whether you’re trading stocks on the Nigerian Stock Exchange or dabbling in forex, understanding fees, security measures, and usability can save you headaches and maybe even a few kobo.
With digital trading becoming the norm, having a reliable, secure, and user-friendly app is no longer a luxury—it's your frontline tool for making smart investment moves.
Inside, we'll look at factors like transaction costs, app responsiveness, customer support, and how well apps tailor their services to the Nigerian market. Armed with this knowledge, you’ll be able to weed out the duds and focus on platforms that help you trade efficiently and safely.
Understanding Online Trading Apps
Understanding online trading apps is the first and most important step for any investor, especially in Nigeria's fast-evolving financial landscape. These apps are the gateway to the stock markets, making investing accessible right from your phone or computer. When you grasp what these platforms offer and how they work, you're better equipped to pick one that fits your trading style and goals.
Online trading apps aren’t just about buying and selling stocks; they deliver a whole package. From real-time data feeds to analytical tools, these platforms provide everything you need to make informed decisions. Take, for instance, the app provided by Stanbic IBTC; it combines easy market access with educational resources specialized for Nigerian users, showing how local adaptations matter.
Having this solid understanding helps avoid common pitfalls like choosing apps with poor security or hidden fees. Knowing the ins and outs of trading platforms lets you focus on growing your portfolio with confidence instead of dealing with technical hiccups or unexpected costs.
What Online Trading Apps Offer
Access to stock markets
The primary draw of online trading apps is quick and easy access to stock markets. In Nigeria, platforms like Meritrade and Bamboo make it possible to buy shares listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) without stepping into a broker’s office. This convenience saves time and allows investors to act fast, especially during volatile market swings.
With just a smartphone, you can check prices, browse market depth, and place orders any time. For Nigerian investors, this accessibility breaks down barriers, letting even those in smaller towns participate in the stock market. Beyond the NSE, some apps also connect users to international stock exchanges, broadening investment opportunities.
Tools for research and analysis
Trading apps come loaded with research tools that help you analyze trends and make better decisions. For example, apps like EasyTrader Nigeria offer candlestick charts, moving averages, and news feeds tailored to African markets. These features help you spot patterns in stock movements or catch updates that might affect your investments.
Such tools are essential because investing without them is like sailing without a compass. You want to know if a company’s earnings report is coming up or what the latest government policy on oil exports means for stocks like Seplat or Oando. The better your app’s research features, the easier it is to stay ahead.
Order placement and tracking
Placing an order might seem straightforward, but having a smooth, reliable interface is critical. Good trading apps let you execute orders quickly and show you the progress — whether it’s pending, executed, or cancelled. This transparency cuts down on anxiety and confusion.
Imagine you want to buy Dangote Cement shares amid market jitters. A responsive app helps you lock in your order at the desired price, showing you status updates without delays. Additionally, tracking features allow you to monitor your portfolio and adjust strategies on the fly, essential for quick-reacting markets.
Types of Trading Platforms Available
Mobile apps
Mobile platforms dominate the Nigerian market thanks to widespread smartphone use. They offer the flexibility to trade anywhere — from Lagos traffic jams to a quiet café in Aba. Apps like Trove and Chaka have friendly layouts that are simple enough for beginners but powerful enough for seasoned traders.
The key benefit here is convenience. Notifications about price changes or market news come straight to your phone, helping you react instantly. Plus, mobile apps often integrate biometric logins like fingerprint scans, making security easier without sacrificing speed.
Web-based platforms
Browser-based platforms don’t require downloads and work on any device with internet access. Nigerian investors who prefer trading on laptops or desktops often lean toward web platforms due to their larger screen space and full-featured interfaces.
For example, Meritrade offers an intuitive web version where you can do in-depth technical analysis, customize watchlists, and perform bulk trades. The downside might be slower load times on poor internet connections common in rural Nigeria, but for those with decent broadband, web platforms offer robust functionality.
Desktop software
While less common in Nigeria due to portability issues, desktop software remains a powerful option for heavy traders and professionals. These programs usually provide advanced charting tools, algorithmic trading capabilities, and faster execution speeds.
Platforms like MetaTrader 5 are popular choices among forex and commodity traders in Nigeria seeking detailed analytics and automated trading. However, desktop software requires installation and regular updates, which might be less convenient for casual investors.
To sum up, understanding the types of trading apps and their offerings is essential before picking one. Whether you like trading on your phone during your commute or prefer analyzing charts on a desktop at home, there’s a platform tailored to your needs. This knowledge ensures your trading experience will be both comfortable and effective.
Key Features to Look For in a Trading App
Choosing the right trading app goes beyond just picking one with a flashy interface or popular name. The key features of a trading app can significantly impact your trading experience, influencing how efficiently you operate and how secure your investments remain. For Nigerian investors, where the market and infrastructure have their unique traits, these features aren't just conveniences—they often determine success or frustration.
User Interface and Ease of Use
Navigation simplicity is about how intuitive the app feels from the get-go. Imagine trying to find your way in a cluttered market with no signs—frustrating and time-wasting, right? A good trading app should let you find your desired stocks or instruments in a snap without endless taps or redirects. This means logically organized menus, quick access to your portfolio, and straightforward trade placement. For instance, apps like Trove offer clean menus and a minimalistic design that helps avoid confusion, which is crucial during fast-moving markets.
Customizable dashboards allow you to tailor the app to your trading style. Whether you prefer keeping an eye on currency pairs alongside equities or want quick snapshots of your portfolio value and recent trades, a customizable dashboard can make the app feel like it was built just for you. It’s practical because no two investors follow the same strategy or watchlist. So, a platform like Bamboo that lets users drag and drop widgets or choose specific data feeds can save time--a vital asset in volatile markets.
Security Measures and Data Protection
Encryption standards are the backbone of any trustworthy trading app. They ensure your sensitive information, like your login credentials and financial data, is scrambled and unreadable to outsiders. In Nigeria, where cyber threats and scams are rising, strong encryption isn’t a luxury but a necessity. You should look for apps that use at least 256-bit SSL encryption—the same level banks use. For example, platforms such as Chaka emphasize end-to-end encryption to protect user data.
Two-factor authentication (2FA) adds an extra layer of protection by requiring not only your password but also a second form of verification, usually a code sent to your phone. This simple step keeps sneaky cybercriminals at bay and is especially important in finance apps. Without 2FA, a stolen password can mean a hacked account and lost money. A trading app without easy 2FA options is a big red flag.
Available Trading Instruments
Stocks and equities are the bread and butter of most trading platforms. For Nigerian investors, it’s important to have access to both local stocks, like those on the Nigerian Exchange Group (NGX), and international markets, enabling portfolio diversification. Platforms like Trove allow users to buy fractional shares of US stocks alongside Nigerian equities, making it easier to build a mix of assets without breaking the bank.
ETFs and mutual funds offer a way to invest in a basket of assets, which reduces risk and simplifies investment decisions. Not every app supports these, so if you prefer more passive or managed investment styles, ensure your trading app includes them. Bamboo is one app providing access to various ETFs tailored to African markets, enabling investment beyond individual stocks.
Forex and commodities are markets favored by more seasoned traders or those seeking short-term profits. Nigerian traders looking for forex options should pick apps supporting a robust selection of currency pairs, including the Nigerian Naira (NGN) against major currencies. For commodities like gold or oil, platforms should offer real-time data and quick trade executions to keep up with volatile price swings. Apps like OANDA offer comprehensive forex trading instruments and are accessible via mobile and desktop, fitting investors seeking active trading.
Remember, the app you choose shapes how comfortable and secure your trading feels. Prioritize features that match your trading style and safeguard your investments efficiently.
Costs and Fees Associated with Trading Apps
Understanding the costs linked to online trading apps is essential for Nigerian investors aiming to maximize their returns. Every trade might seem small, but fees can quickly add up and eat into your profits if you're not careful. This section breaks down the main expenses you need to watch out for so you don't get caught off guard.
Commission and Transaction Fees
When trading stocks or other assets through apps, you'll encounter two common fee structures: flat fees and percentage-based fees. Flat fees mean you pay a fixed cost per trade regardless of the trade size — for example, a ₦200 fee whether you buy a single share or 100 shares. Percentage-based fees, on the other hand, charge you a slice of the total transaction, like 0.5% of your trade value.
Each has its perks and downsides. If you're dealing with small trades, percentage fees might be more wallet-friendly; but for big trades, a flat fee can save you heaps. For instance, if you buy ₦100,000 worth of shares and the fee is 0.3%, you'd pay ₦300. However, with a flat fee of ₦500, it’s actually costlier for smaller trades. So, look carefully at your typical trading volume — commission structures affect your bottom line more than you might think.
Hidden Charges to Watch Out For
Inactivity Fees
Some trading apps charge a fee if your account stays dormant for months. This is sneaky because you might sign up, try out the app, and then forget about it for a while. NDAX, for example, charges an inactivity fee after six months of no trading. Always check the fine print to avoid paying for doing nothing. These fees can nibble away your investment if left unnoticed, so better to stay active or choose an app with no such penalty.
Withdrawal or Deposit Charges
Moving money in and out of your trading app often comes with extra costs. Whether you fund your account via Quickteller or withdraw earnings to your bank, some apps slap on processing fees. For instance, Chaka sometimes charges ₦50-₦100 per withdrawal, depending on the amount. These might seem trivial at first, but frequent deposits and withdrawals can become costly over time.
It’s smart to pick an app that supports popular Nigerian payment gateways like Paystack or Flutterwave with minimal fees. Consider batching withdrawals instead of small, frequent ones to cut down on charges.
Tip: Always read the app’s fee schedule carefully before committing. Hidden fees often play a big role in your net returns.
In short, knowing the exact costs tied to trading apps helps you avoid unpleasant surprises and make informed choices, especially in the Nigerian market where local currency issues and payment methods add extra complexity.
Evaluating Customer Support Quality
Customer support quality is often overlooked when choosing an online trading app, yet it’s one of the most critical factors, especially for Nigerian investors navigating sometimes unpredictable market conditions and app-specific issues. When trading money, you want assurance that help is just a call or message away if something goes sideways. Good customer support can save you precious time during technical glitches or clarify confusing fees, keeping your investments on track without unnecessary stress.
Availability and Responsiveness
Live chat and phone support
Having access to live support through chat or phone can make all the difference. Imagine noticing a wrong trade or a failed transaction outside market hours – you want someone to talk to immediately, not wait hours or days for an email reply. Instant communication channels show a trading app’s commitment to assisting users in real time and reduce frustration. For example, an app like Trove offers responsive live chat that connects you with agents who speak your language and understand local trading intricacies.
Email response time
Though slower than live chat or phone, email support often handles more complicated queries or documentation needs. It's important to consider the average email response time because delays can cost opportunities, especially in volatile markets. An efficient support team will respond within 24 hours or less, and many Nigerian traders prefer apps that clearly state their support timelines. This transparency builds trust and helps you plan your communications effectively.
Educational Resources and Guidance
Tutorials and FAQs
Great customer support extends beyond problem-solving to education. For beginner or even seasoned investors, having access to clear tutorials and a comprehensive FAQ section can answer many questions before they become issues. This feature also speeds up learning the app’s functions without calling support repeatedly. For instance, apps like Bamboo provide step-by-step guides tailored for Nigerian users, explaining everything from funding accounts to advanced order types.
Market news and updates
Keeping up with market moves is crucial. Some trading apps enrich their user experience by offering integrated market news and regular updates, helping investors make informed decisions without jumping between platforms. This feature is especially handy for Nigerians tracking global commodities or forex markets alongside local stocks. Think of it as having a mini news desk within your trading app, nudging you with alerts and analysis relevant to your portfolio.
Investing in an app with solid customer support means less downtime and fewer surprises, allowing you to focus on what really matters: growing your investments wisely.
By evaluating customer service on these practical points, Nigerian investors can choose trading apps that not only function well but also stand by their users, enhancing confidence and trading success.
Trading App Compatibility and Performance
One of the most overlooked aspects when picking an online trading app is how well it works on your device and how reliable it is under pressure. For Nigerian investors, these factors are vital because the mobile networks and internet speeds can be patchy depending on location. If an app lags or crashes during crucial trading moments, that could mean missed opportunities or worse – unexpected losses.
A good trading app should run smoothly on your phone or desktop without hogging too much data or battery life. Think about a situation where you're trying to place a quick order during market hours and the app freezes or takes too long to respond. That's why compatibility with your device’s operating system and overall performance is a make-or-break deal.
Supported Devices and Operating Systems
Android and iOS requirements
Most Nigerian investors use either Android or iOS smartphones, so the app must support these platforms with up-to-date versions. Apps that lag behind on updates might not take advantage of security patches or new features, making your trading experience clunky. For instance, an app not optimized for Android 12 or iOS 16 could crash or exhibit glitches due to outdated coding.
Check the app store descriptions for minimum OS requirements before downloading. Some apps also perform better on specific versions; for example, an app might work fine on Android 10 but struggle on older versions like Android 8. Being aware of this helps avoid disappointment or trading delays.
Web browser compatibility
While mobile apps are popular, having a web version offers flexibility, especially for those who prefer trading on a laptop or desktop. A good trading platform should work seamlessly across major browsers such as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, or Safari.
Compatibility issues can mean slow load times, limited functionality, or features not displaying correctly. Nigerian investors often switch between devices, so an app that offers a consistent experience regardless of browser or device is a smart choice, especially if you want to monitor your portfolio while on the go or from home.
App Speed and Reliability
Order execution speed
When it comes to trading, every second counts. The speed at which your app executes orders can make a big difference between snagging a good price or missing out. Think of it like trying to buy a pair of sneakers during a big sale — slow checkout means you might lose out.
In real trading terms, an app with fast order execution helps minimize slippage (the difference between expected price and actual trade price) and ensures you enter or exit the market at your desired price. Apps like Bamboo or Trove in Nigeria have invested heavily in technology to keep execution times lightning fast, which investors appreciate.
Downtime occurrences
Nothing tests patience more than an app going offline when you need it most. Downtime means you can't check your portfolio, place trades, or react to market news. Nigerian investors should be on the lookout for apps with a strong track record of uptime.
Reliable platforms usually have backup servers and quick recovery systems to reduce downtime. Never underestimate checking reviews or user forums to see if an app regularly crashes or has maintenance during peak trading hours. Consistency is king in trading.
Always remember: A trading app that performs smoothly and is compatible with your device saves you stress and potentially a good chunk of money in the long run.
By focusing on compatibility and performance, Nigerian investors can avoid common pitfalls and make sure their chosen platform supports their trading ambitions without constant hitches or frustrations.
Considerations Specific to Nigerian Investors
When choosing a trading app, Nigerian investors face some unique challenges and opportunities. Local regulations, payment systems, and currency issues are front and center here. Unlike users in other countries, Nigerian traders need platforms that not only offer a wide array of securities but also respect the country’s financial rules and seamlessly handle local payment methods. This section sheds light on what you need to watch out for to avoid surprises and make the most of your investments.
Regulatory Compliance in Nigeria
Registered brokers
One of the most important things to look for in a trading app is whether it’s tied to a registered broker within Nigeria. Brokers registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Nigeria have to follow strict guidelines designed to protect investors. For example, apps connected to these brokers must safeguard your funds separately from their operational money, reducing the risk of loss if something goes wrong.
Using an app linked to a registered broker means you benefit from official oversight, so you're less likely to fall prey to scams or shady practices. Before signing up, check if the broker’s name appears on the SEC’s public registry. This simple step can save you from headaches down the road.
Licenses and authorities
Beyond registration, Nigerian trading apps must comply with licenses granted by authoritative bodies. The SEC is the main regulator, but others like the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) and the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) play key roles too. These licenses guarantee that the app adheres to Nigerian laws around trading activities, data protection, and fund handling.
An app that doesn’t operate under these licenses could be asking for trouble. You might face difficulties if disputes arise or if you want to withdraw money quickly. Also, compliance with local authorities often means the app updates regularly to keep pace with shifts in Nigerian market regulations, which is good for your trading peace of mind.
Currency Conversion and Payment Options
Nigerian Naira support
Since most Nigerians earn, save, and spend in Naira, it's a major plus if your trading app supports direct Naira deposits and withdrawals. If an app requires conversion to dollars or any other currency before you can trade, you’re likely to face extra charges or unfavorable rates.
For instance, apps like Trove and Bamboo now allow you to buy U.S. stocks directly with Naira. This saves you from multiple currency exchanges, making your trading straightforward and cost-efficient. Always check if the app clearly displays exchange rates and conversion fees before committing funds.
Popular payment gateways
Ease of deposit and withdrawal is make-or-break for many traders. In Nigeria, the go-to payment gateways include Paystack, Flutterwave, and local bank transfers. These gateways are popular because they support Nigerian bank accounts and mobile money wallets, making funding your trading account hassle-free.
An app integrated with these payment processors will enable faster transactions without jumping through hoops. For example, if you want to fund your account via your GTBank or Zenith Bank app, the platform should accept those direct transfers. Apps ignoring these gateways often force users into cumbersome international wire transfers, which are slower and attract high fees.
Choosing a trading app that understands Nigerian payment habits and regulatory demands puts you miles ahead, avoiding unnecessary friction and letting you focus on what really matters — your investments.
Popular Online Trading Apps in Nigeria
Online trading apps are the lifelines of modern trading, especially in Nigeria where digital finance is rapidly growing. Picking popular and dependable apps isn’t just about hopping on the trend; it’s about finding tools that actually support your trading goals and fit the local market conditions. Many Nigerian investors lean towards apps that understand the nuances of our market, including currency handling and regulatory requirements.
Features of Top Apps
User base
Knowing how many people use an app offers clues about its reliability and community support. Take Chaka, for instance; it's one of the fastest growing platforms in Nigeria, boasting thousands of active users daily. A large user base often means better liquidity—an essential factor for quick trades. It also means more user feedback, which developers often use to squash bugs and roll out useful features. If an app has a tiny user footprint, it might not be tested enough under real market pressures.
Trading range
The range of assets an app supports can make or break your experience. Nigerian investors often want more than stock trading—they’re looking at forex, commodities like oil and gold, and even cryptocurrencies. Apps like Troxo offer a variety of trading options, allowing users to diversify portfolios without jumping between platforms. Remember, a narrow trading range limits your ability to hedge or seize opportunities across different markets.
Fees overview
Fees sneak up on a lot of newbies. Look closely at commission rates and transaction fees. For example, Cowrywise has straightforward charge structures which many appreciate for transparency. Flat fees might seem low but can add up if you’re trading in small amounts regularly. Percentage fees could pinch heavy with larger volumes. Also, keep an eye on hidden costs like withdrawal fees or inactivity charges, which some apps quietly include in their terms.
Pros and Cons of Each App
Strengths
Each app shines in its own way. Chaka offers wide market access including US stocks, which is a huge draw for Nigerian investors wanting international exposure. Troxo stands out with its smooth currency conversion feature, making it easy to trade with Naira and dollars. Apps like Risevest pack user-friendly interfaces and educational resources, perfect for people just breaking into investing. These strengths make trading more accessible and efficient.
Limitations and restrictions
No app is perfect, and spotting drawbacks early saves frustration. For example, some platforms like Chaka limit direct bank integration which can slow deposit times. Others, such as Troxo, have higher fees for certain asset classes, which might not suit every trader’s budget. Then there’s the issue of regulatory compliance; apps not fully regulated by Nigerian authorities like the SEC might carry risks in terms of fund security. Restrictions on withdrawal frequency or minimum deposit amounts can also hamper active trading.
Choosing the right trading app means balancing the pros and cons with your trading style and objectives. Popularity is good, but practical features and honest pricing will keep you trading smarter in the long run.
In the Nigerian market, especially, traders benefit from apps that blend local understanding with global market access. As always, reading reviews, trying demo accounts, and testing feature sets firsthand can help nail down the best fit for your trading journey.
Tips for Getting Started with Online Trading Apps
Diving into online trading can feel like stepping into a buzzing marketplace, full of opportunities but also packed with risks. It's easy to get caught up in the thrill of buying and selling shares right away. However, starting on the right foot is essential to avoid costly mistakes and build a solid foundation for your investment journey. This section lays down practical tips to help Nigerian investors approach online trading apps with a clear mind and a smart plan.
Setting Realistic Investment Goals
One of the first things to nail down before cracking open any trading app is your investment goals. Setting realistic expectations shapes the way you approach the market and keeps frustration at bay.
Risk tolerance
Understanding your risk tolerance means knowing how much financial uncertainty you can stomach without losing your cool. For some, a sudden 10% drop in portfolio value is nerve-racking; for others, it's just part of the ride. Assessing this helps you decide which assets to buy and how aggressively to trade. For example, if you prefer a steady, stable path, blue-chip stocks or ETFs that track broad indexes might fit better than diving headlong into volatile penny stocks.
Time horizon
Your time horizon is simply how long you plan to keep your money invested before needing it back. A longer horizon—five years or more—allows you to weather short-term setbacks, while a short horizon calls for safer, more liquid investments. If you’re saving for a big purchase in two years, putting that cash into highly volatile assets would be like running a sprint in hiking boots. Knowing your time horizon guides your choice of stocks, bonds, or mutual funds, and how frequently to rebalance your portfolio.
Starting Small and Learning Gradually
Jumping into live trading without experience is like trying to drive a car on a highway without ever having taken lessons. That's where gradual learning and starting small can pay off in spades.
Using demo accounts
Most trading apps now offer demo accounts—practice environments where no real money is involved. Think of it as a flight simulator for trading; you test strategies, get a feel for the app’s interface, and watch how trades play out without risking a kobo. For example, apps like Bamboo and Trove provide this feature, and it helps sharpen your skills before handling real cash.
Incremental investment approach
Rather than tossing in a big amount right away, consider an incremental investment approach. This means you add money bit by bit, learning from each trade, and allowing small mistakes to teach you rather than wipe out your capital. Nigerian investors might start with ₦10,000 or ₦20,000 and build up gradually. This approach also reduces the emotional weight, helping you stay disciplined and avoid chasing quick profits.
Starting slow and setting clear goals aren’t just about keeping losses low — they're about building confidence and know-how in the noisy world of online trading.
Adopting these tips ensures that as a Nigerian investor, you move beyond guesswork, making wise choices that align with your financial goals and comfort level. It’s not about hitting the jackpot immediately but growing steadily with a practical and measured approach.
Common Mistakes to Avoid when Using Trading Apps
When diving into online trading, it’s easy to fall into certain traps that can hurt your return or cause unnecessary stress. For Nigerian investors, especially those new to digital platforms, being aware of common mistakes is not just useful but necessary to safeguard your hard-earned money and grow your portfolio steadily. Knowing what pitfalls to avoid can save you from costly errors and keep you focused on your investment goals.
Overtrading and Emotional Decisions
Impact on returns: Overtrading happens when you make trades too frequently, often driven by the fear of missing out or emotional reactions to market fluctuations. This can take a toll on your returns because each trade involves fees and increases the chance of making poor choices under pressure. For example, a trader who buys and sells Nigerian stocks several times in a single day may rack up fees that erode their profits or even cause losses despite overall positive market movement.
Strategies to stay disciplined: To avoid jumping into trades on impulse, set clear rules before you start. This includes defining your investment time horizon and risk tolerance. Using stop-loss orders or alerts can help you avoid panic selling during dips. Also, keep a trading journal to reflect on why you made each trade and learn from your mistakes. Think of trading as a marathon, not a sprint — pacing yourself keeps you calm and focused.
Ignoring Fees and Charges
How fees affect profits: Even small fees can add up over time and eat into your returns. Some trading apps might have hidden inactivity charges or withdrawal fees that catch investors off guard. For example, if you pay a 0.5% commission on every trade plus a monthly inactivity fee, your overall gains will shrink unless your strategy accounts for these costs.
Reviewing fee schedules regularly: Don’t just glance at the fee information once and forget about it. Trading apps often update their fee structures, so reviewing your app’s fee schedules every few months is smart. Keep an eye out for new charges like deposit or currency conversion fees, especially because Nigerian investors may deal with currency conversions from Naira to dollars or other currencies when trading on international platforms.
Staying aware of costs and avoiding emotional trading can make a huge difference — it’s like tightening the bolts on your trading engine to make sure it runs smoothly without leaks.
Avoiding these common missteps will put you ahead in the competitive world of online trading while helping your investment capital grow steadily without unnecessary setbacks.